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The total nitrogen content of three barley cultivars: Cehada Capa (resistant at 25aC), Cl 1243 (resistant at 5°C) and Rika 1 (susceptible at all temperatures) to Puccinia hordei was determined and compared in healthy and infected plants at 5° and 26°C. The results indicate that the total nitrogen content of cv. Cehada Capa leaves was greater than that of Cl 1243 and Rika 1 and that of Cl 1243 was greater than that of Rika 1 when plants were grown at 26°C. When plants were grown at 5°C, the percentage of total nitrogen content of leaves of cv. Cebada Capa was significantly greater than that of Cl 1243 and Rika 1, but no differences were found between Rika 1 and Cl 1243. It was concluded that the total nitrogen content has no role in the temperature sensitivity of barley cultivars. In most cases, especially in susceptible cultivars, the nitrogen content of infected leaves was greater than that of healthy plants when plants were incubated at 26°C, but there were no significant differences between total nitrogen content of infected leaves and that of their healthy control when plants were incubated at 5°C.

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ELISA values (O.D.s) of extracts of separately roots and individual leaves of barley and wheat plants infected by a French BYDV-PAV isolate (PAV-4), were assessed for five dif-ferent virus incubation periods in controlled conditions (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 days after in-oculation). In most cases, virus contents of individual roots or leaves were not statistically different for barley and wheat. For both plant species, ELISA values peaked sooner in roots than in leaves and in most harvesting dates were higher in roots. The old leaf had a significantly lower virus titre than other leaves. Upper leaves exhibited the highest ELISA values. These results indicate that the upper part of infected plants is the most suitable for virus acquisition by aphids. A scheme for BYDV-PAV spread in young plants is proposed, and compared to the distribution of vectors on the plants.

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Two barley (Hordeun vulgare L.) genotypes, Radical and Cwb, with good to moderate levels of resistance to powdery mildew were crossed with a highly susceptible cultivar (Afzal) to determine the genetics of resistance. The parents, Fl, F2 and F3 generations of each of the two crosses, were evaluated for powdery mildew resistance in the glasshouse and field at the College of Agriculture in Karaj during 2000. The x2 analysis of the segre-gating ratios in the F3 generations indicated that the resistance was controlled by one gene at seedling stage and by two or three genes at adult plant stage in Cwb and Radical, respectively. Radical showed a higher level of resistance than the Cwb, therefore, it is a better source of resistance to powdery mildew.

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Malting is a complex biotechnological process that includes steeping; germination and drying of cereal grains under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity. In present study of barley variety, namely Sahra and Triticale were obtained from Agricultural Organization of Golestan province. Preliminary assessment tests such as viability and physico-chemical properties were determined after two month storage. Malts samples that produced in laboratory scale were measured following mashing process for properties of wort. Analysis of variance was performed with SAS software and the differences among means were evaluated using the Duncan's multiple range tests. The result showed that during malting diastatic power and cold water extract improved, but ash and protein decreased in both triticale and barley. Also during malt process the amount of fat and pH decrease and increase respectively. The results confirmed that some properties such as diastatic power، protein and cold water extract of malted triticale was more than Barley and also this cereal produced higher hot water extract (25.78 %), reduced sugars (75.25 %), color (4.023 ASBC), brix (8.78%), total soluble nitrogen (1.148 %), free amino nitrogen (313/67 mg/l) and also time of filtration of triticale extract was more than malted barley.  

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The effects of water deficit on grain yield, yield components and the physiological char-acteristics of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) varieties were studied in a split plot design dur-ing the 1999-2000 growing season in Karaj, Iran. Five irrigation levels [0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% crop water requirements (CWR)] and six barley varieties Karoon Kavir , Rei-hani(drought tolerant), Torkman , C-74-9 (intermediate) , Kavir Badia and Gorgan-4 (2 rowed type, drought sensitive) were arranged in the main plots and sub plots respectively. Results showed that water deficit induced stress and this decreased the grain yield and yield components. Water deficit increased the canopy temperature and those varieties showed a higher canopy temperature under non-stress conditions, performed better un-der drought conditions. Severe stress reduced the chlorophyll content (SPAD values) con-siderably, but the differences were not significant between the 50, 75 and 100% CWR treatments. In addition, no significant differences were observed in the chlorophyll con-tent of barley varieties under drought conditions. The effect of irrigation on the photo-chemical efficiency of photosystemII (Fv/Fm) and the other fluorescence parameters for all varieties were significant. Although the Fv/Fm values were not significant in barley varie-ties at any level of irrigation, in general Karoon Kavir and Reihani varieties showed a better performance under water deficit conditions. Proline content was significantly dif-ferent in various irrigation treatments, but its accumulation at any level of irrigation did not differ significantly in barley varieties. It was concluded that the higher canopy tem-perature (less negative T) under well irrigated conditions and higher grain yield, 1000-grain weight, Fv/Fm values under water stress conditions could possibly be the proper cri-teria for screening the drought tolerant barley genotypes under field or laboratory condi-tions.

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Red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is a cosmopolitan and serious pest of cereal grains and their products in storage. In this research, nutritional indices and digestive enzymatic activity of T. castaneum fourth instar and adults were studied on ten barley cultivars (Fajr30, Behrokh, Sahra, Makuyi, Neek, Lout, Bahman, Nosrat, Abidar, and Sahand) at 30 ± 1 °C, relative humidity of 75 ± 5% and darkness conditions. The results showed that fourth instars and adults reared on cultivars Makuyi and Fajr30 had the lowest weight gain, efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI), relative growth rate and growth rate (GR) values. However, T. castaneum fed on cultivar Lout showed the highest weight gain, ECI and GR. The highest amylolytic activity of larvae was on cultivar Bahman, whereas the lowest activity was on cultivars Makuyi and Neek. Amylolytic activity of adults was the highest on cultivar Makuyi, and the lowest on cultivar Lout. Moreover, proteolytic activity of fourth instar was the highest when larvae were fed on cultivar Sahra and the lowest when they were fed on cultivars Behrokh and Makuyi. The highest proteolytic activity of adults was on cultivar Abidar, and the lowest on cultivar Bahman. The results of this study indicated that cultivars Fajr30 and Makuyi were less nutritive and cultivar Lout was more nutritive to T. castaneum. Therefore, more attention should be paid to manage the pest on cultivar Lout as a susceptible cultivar.
 

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The allelopathic potential of the foliage tissues of eight barley cultivars was investigated using seedlings bioassays of Indian brown mustard (Brassica juncea) and green foxtail (Setaria viridis) as typical broadleaf and grass weeds of the croplands. The correlations of allelochemical compounds with seed germination of weeds were determined. The barley cultivars used were Jackson, Bronco, CDC Dolly, B1602, Harrington, UNA80, Stander, and TR251. Three dilutions of the extracts of each barley cultivar (20, 10 and 5 g/L) plus deionized distilled water, as a control, were assayed on the target weeds. The effects of barley cultivars and extract concentrations on seed germination and radicle and shoot lengths of the target weed seeds were highly significant (P<0.001). By increasing the con-centration of the allelopathic extracts, the percent germination, radicle and shoot lengths of both target plants seedlings decreased. Seed germination and seedling growth of B. juncea were more sensitive than those of S. viridis. Relative to the germination inhibition of target weed seeds in comparison to the untreated control, the selected barley cultivars were categorized as being highly allelopathic, moderately allelopathic and of low allelo-pathic potential. Among the phenolic compounds detected, the cumulative effect of four small-quantity-compounds (vanillic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, and ferulic acids) on aver-age weed germination was very high (R2 = 0.83), with B. juncea it was high (R2 = 0.70) and with S. viridis it was very low (R2 = 0.15). The two high concentration phenolic compounds of protocatechuic and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, when accumulated with the small-quantity phenolic compounds of barley cultivars, reduced the weed seeds germination correlation to r=- 0.11.

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     Malting process includes steeping, controlled germination that after kilning nutritional properties and crispy of product enhance. Adjuncts are used in the most countries for cost reduction purposes without any undesirable effect on final product. The purpose of this study was determination of changing length, width, thickness, kernel density, bulk density, porosity, total nitrogen, reducing sugar, diastatic activity, cold water extract, pH, ash and texture during malting, and also mashing extract of malt process by using unmalted barley (sahra cultivar) as adjuncts at the rations of 20, 40 and 50 % was evaluated. Results showed that width, thickness, diastatic activity, reducing sugar and cold water extract of the samples increased over the malting time, whereas kernel density, bulk density, total nitrogen and ash decreased. Scanning electron microscopic examination of barley was revealed digestion of cell walls and protein matrix of endosperm walls. Increasing rations of unmalted barley as adjunct in mashing decreased the diaststic power, color, soluble nitrogen. Using unmalted barley as compared to mash from malted barley (100%) showed that the ration of 20% was better than the other rations.  

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Barley flour is one of the cheap, nutritious and rich fiber food stuff and has many applications in food industries special in cooking products. Nowadays, regimen fibers role is very important on human health and preventing diseases such as fatness, heart and blood vessels diseases, diabet and digestive cancers. In this research, in the first stage, barley flour in levels of 15, 30 and 45 percent was added to wheat flour that used in toast breads. Then in order to evaluation of barley and wheat flour, different chemical experimental were done and results showed that wheat flour with 29.75% wet gluten and barley flour with 6.5% of fiber had the best quality of nutrition. Then dough prepared in two different stages. In the first, barley flour was added in different amounts and in the second, barley flour which had listed with 25% of sourdough that made of   lactobacillus plantarum (ATCC43332). Then the rheological properties of dough were evaluated by Farinograph and Extensograph. Based on the results, B3 (45% barley flour) had the most rate of water adsorption and control treatment had the most rate of development time, dough stability, quality, valorimetry number and energy consumption. Staling rate and sensory properties were evaluated by Instron and panel groups respectively. B1 (15 percent barley flour) and  BS1 treatment (15 percent barley flour with 25 percent Sourdough) had the least staling rate in comparison with other existed samples, also BS1 was the best in sensory evaluations. 

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The West Asia-North Africa region, which is characterized by a typical Mediterranean climate, is the center of origin of cereals, notably wheat (Triticum spp.) and barley (Hordeum spp). However, cereal production, which is primarily rainfed, is mainly constrained by drought due to the low rainfall accompanied by high temperatures. Cereals have been tradi-tionally grown following a fallow period in order to achieve acceptable yields on stored soil moisture, but they are increasingly grown either continuously or in rotation with legumes, either food or forage. Barley is grown throughout the Mediterranean region, generally in the drier zones and often on shallow soils and with application of minimum or no fertilizers. The medium-rainfall zone of central Morocco (200-500 mm yr-1) is typical of the region as a whole. In order to provide a rational basis for barley fertilization, especially as regards ni-trogen (N), a field trial was established near Settat, involving five barley varieties (ACSAD-60, Tessaout, Asni, Arig-8, and ACSAD-176), along with four N application at four levels (0, 40, 80, and 120 kg N ha-1), grown on a shallow soil (Petrocalcic Palexeroll) for two growing seasons that varied in terms of total rainfall (Year 1, 261mm and Year 2, 302 mm) as well as within-season distribution. There were considerable differences between crop years, with significantly higher yields in the second growing season when rainfall was heavy at the criti-cal tillering and stem-elongation growth stages. Nitrogen consistently increased dry matter and grain yields in either year, generally being significant up to 80 kg ha-1. There were sig-nificant differences observed among varieties, as well as interactions of varieties with years. The six-row variety Arig-8 was consistently the best while the two-row Asni, the lowest yielding variety. Where an economic analysis was done on yield data (Year 1), N fertilization up to at least 80 kg ha-1 was considered as profitable. Crop N uptake varied with varieties and increased with increasing fertilizer. N Recovery was variable and generally less than 50%. In contrast to many other fertilizer trials with barley in the region, this trial from cen-tral Morocco showed highly significant yield increases in response to applied N for barley varieties, most of which performed similarly. Therefore, N fertilization of barley in Mo-rocco’s semi-arid cereal-producing zone on shallow soils, where root growth and moisture-holding capacity are limited, should be promoted.

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To determine ancient seed species, 3250-3450 year-old charred seeds obtained from different Iranian archaeological sites were studied using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and molecular analysis. SEM analysis of ancient seeds revealed that the surface of the seeds was damaged. Therefore, we could not accurately identify their species. Molecular analysis on ancient specimens was done on different samples obtained from Masjede Kabood (Tabriz), Tepe Rahmat Abad (Pasargad) and Tepe Sagz Abad (Qazvin plain). The specific primer pairs were designed based on a part of the promoter region of the High Molecular Weight (HMW) glutenin gene and a short fragment of the vrs1 gene were verified on samples of modern wheat and barley varieties, respectively. The designated primers failed to amplify ancient DNAs (aDNAs) obtained from Masjede Kabood and Tepe Rahmat Abad, but successfully amplified the aDNA obtained from Tepe Sagz Abad. This finding was expected since the latter seeds had a better morphological preservation in comparison to the former ones. The accuracy of the amplified products was further proved by cloning and sequencing.

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This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of barley green fodder produced by hydroponics system on the performance of feedlot calves. In a completely block randomized experiment, 24 cross bred (Holstein×Local) male calves were assigned randomly to one of the two treatments (diets) that were either control (grain barley) or hydroponic barley green fodder (BGF) that was included to provide 22.8 percent of the total diet on dry matter basis. Seed grade barley was grown in a hydroponics chamber system where the growth period was adjusted for 6 days. Body weigh gain was not significantly different between the treatments, but the animals that had received the control diet had higher (P< 0.05) dry matter intake than those fed BGF diet. There was a tendency (P= 0.199) toward differences in feed efficiency due to dietary treatments. From economical point of view, feed cost increased up to 24 percent when the calves were offered BGF, because of the costly production of hydroponics green forage. Although the mass production of fresh fodder was about 4.5 times per kg of barley grain, this was due to water absorption during germination and growth period. Nevertheless, the dry matter obtained was less than the initial barley grain and further dry matter losses were found in the green fodder. These findings suggest that green fodder had no advantage over barley grain in feedlot calves, while it increased the cost of feed.

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The effect of different fertilizing systems and drought stress during grain development on grain minerals of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) was studied in field experiments on a clay-loamy soil during 2007 and 2008 growing seasons. The treatments consisted of three irrigation regimes (main plots) of: Non-stressed (NS, normal irrigation continued until the end of plant physiological maturity), Moderate Stress (MS, irrigation ceased from the beginning of flowering to the beginning of grain filling stage and Severe Stress (SS, irrigation ceased from the beginning of flowering stage up to the end of physiological maturity) along with six fertilizing regimes consisting of no fertilizer application (control) (NF), phosphorous and nitrogen Biofertilizers (BF), 100% Chemical fertilizer (NPK) (CF), Vermicompost (VC) 5 t ha-1, 50% Chemical fertilizer (NPK)+50% Vermicompost (2.5 t ha-1) (CV), and 50% Chemical fertilizer (NPK)+ Biofertilizer (CB), assigned to the sub plots. Drought stress significantly increased grain minerals of N, Zn and Mn by 12, 27, and 7% as compared with control (NS), respectively. Average grain nitrogen concentration in chemical fertilizer (CF) treatment was significantly more than those in the other treatments followed by integrated fertilizing systems (CB and CV). Phosphorous concentration in grains produced in BF fertilizer medium was significantly higher than those in other treatments. Grain Fe and Zn concentrations increased through vermicompost application. However, Mn concentration was higher in grains fertilized with chemical fertilizer. It can be concluded that in barley production under water deficit conditions, grain mineral quality could be improved through integrated fertilizer application.

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Erosion is considered as a main problem for the loss of arable land around the world. As the world arable land is reaching its limit, marginal areas, such as those prone to wind erosion, have gained importance for agricultural use. A simple and effective way of restoring wind eroded soils is addition of organic materials. Sewage sludge can be an effective way to solve this problem. The effect of sewage sludge application on some physical and chemical properties of a soil affected by wind erosion was studied during 2004 - 2007 in Igdir plain (Aralik), Turkey. Sewage sludge was applied at the rates of 0, 40, 80 and 120 t ha-1 (dry weight). The experiments were conducted for three years using a complete randomized block design with three replications in 12 plots, where barley (Hordeum vulgare) was sown. Sewage sludge application not only improved the physical and chemical properties of the soil, but also increased barley yield. However, increased yield was not sufficiently high. In order to achieve satisfactory yields, annual application of sewage sludge at the rate of, at least, 40 t ha-1 is required.

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Malting is one of the biotechnological processes that includes steeping, germination and killing of cereal in controlled environment in which hydrolytic enzymes are synthesized and cell wall, protein and starch of endosperm are largely digested. Purpose of this study was evaluation of malting quality and identification of suitable line for production of malt products. In this study, effect of malting processing on physicochemical properties including of kernel density, bulk density, thousand weight kernel, protein and cold water extract yield of EBYT and Yusuf varieties evaluated in complete randomized design plan. Experiments were made in triplicate. The results of ANOVA showed that sample type had significant effect on all physicochemical properties (p< 0.01). Maximum amount of kernel density (1332.33 kg/m3) and minimum amount of that (832.33 kg/m3) were related to barley seed of yusuf variety and obtained malt of yusuf variety, respectively. Malting process results in decrease of thousand weight kernel, kernel density and bulk density and increase of protein content and cold water extract yield.  Cold water extract yield in obtained malt of EBYT line was higher than obtained malt of yusuf variety, and consequently, those utilities in enzymatic extracts preparation and also in confectionary, cake and cookie industries.  

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In this article, the size, dimensions, volume, bulk and particle densities, empyting and filling angles of repose and friction coefficients against different surfaces were evaluated for two varieties of barley, Sahra and Valfajr, as a function of moisture content in the range of 10.12 to 42.17 (w.b.%). Most physical properties of barley varieties were significantly affected by moisture content variation. The length, width, thickness and unit mass of Sahra variety increased from 9.88 to 10.16 mm, 3.37 to 3.89 mm, 2.54 to 2.80 mm and 0.048 to 0.074 g, respectively, as the moisture content increased. The respective values for Valfajr varied from 8.37 to 8.87 mm, 3.03 to 3.21 mm, 2.21 to 2.37 mm and 0.037 to 0.043 g, respectively. In Sahra variety, sphericity, geometric mean diameter, bulk density, particle density and porosity increased from 44.59 to 47.40%; 4.38 to 4.79 mm; 568.10 to 613.68 kg m-3; 1,099.65 to 1,245.72 kg m-3 and 48.34 to 50.74%, respectively. The coefficient of static friction increased linearly against all the tested surfaces as the moisture content increased. In Valfajr variety, sphericity increased from 45.79 to 45.89%; geometric mean diameter increased from 3.82 to 4.06 mm; bulk density increased from 579.68 to 608.58 kg m-3; particle density varied from 1,410.82 to 1,230.61 kg m-3; porosity varied from 58.91 to 50.55% and the coefficient of static friction increased linearly against all the tested surfaces as the moisture content increased. The angle of repose for emptying and filling increased linearly as well.

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In order to compare photosynthetic features of triticale, bread wheat, and barley under water deficit conditions, this experiment was carried out in Kurdistan province in western Iran. Four genotypes of triticale, three cultivars of bread wheat, and a new variety of barley were compared under well watered (Ψ_soil= -3 bars) and soil water deficit (Ψ_soil= -12 bars) conditions in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with a split-plot arrangement. Biomass production at anthesis accompanied with gas exchanges and chlorophyll fluorescence of flag leaves, as indicators of photosynthetic function of plant, were determined in each treatment. The results showed that by imposing water deficit, photosynthetic rate (P_n) was reduced in all studied genotypes irrespective of plant species. Under water deficit conditions, the highest P_n (6.86 and 5.90 µmol m^-2 s^-1) was found in bread wheat variety Pishgam and, triticale genotype No. 1, while the lowest value (3.63 µmol m^-2 s^-1) was found in barley variety Bahman. Similar trend was observed for the maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry (F_v/F_m) and performance index (PI). Significant positive correlations were found between biomass production at anthesis and both P_n (r= 0.83^**) and F_v/F_m (r= 0.77^*). Our data revealed the better performance of Pishgam than Alvand and Zarrin in the reduction rate of biomass at anthesis and photosynthetic features against soil water deficit conditions. Overall, triticale was less affected by water deficit in comparison with wheat and barley in terms of photosynthetic function as indicated by less reduction in P_n, PI, and F_v/F_m.

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Leaf blotch disease of barley, caused by Rhynchosporium secalis is a major disease of barley in Iran. Its worldwide occurrence and economic importance in barley production has motivated studies on the population genetic structure of this pathogen. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method was utilized to investigate the genetic diversity of populations of R. secalis isolated from barley leaves. A total of 94 isolates, representing five geographically distinct populations, were collected from diverse climatic regions in Iran. Genetic diversity was studied using eleven RAPD primers. Out of a total of 119 fragments generated by random decamer primers, 89 (75.1%) were polymorphic with an average of 8.1 polymorphic fragments per primer. Cluster analysis of RAPD data using UPGMA and simple matching coefficient method distinguished 33 main groups at 75% similarity level. The similarity between isolates ranged from 0.62 to 0.89. In total, 42 molecular phenotypes (haplotype) were distinguished among the 94 isolates by 11 RAPD primers. Haplotype one was found in all the five regions of Iran surveyed. Some haplotypes were specific to a single region while others found in several regions. There was little correlation observed between genetic vs. geographical distance suggesting that they were independent of each other.

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