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In this research, an apparatus was made and utilized to determine the friction coeffi-cient of chickpea grains on steel surfaces. Experiments were carried out on two black and galvanized surfaces and at four sliding velocities of 5, 20, 100 and 500 mm/min, at three moisture content of 7.5%, 15% and 21% wet basis (w.b.) and at three vertical pressure values of 14.28, 100 and 150 kPa. The following results were obtained. 1) For surface conditioning, the steel plates need to be passed through the grains for at least 7 times. 2) At low sliding velocity, by increasing the velocity from 5 to 20 mm/min, the dynamic friction coefficient of chickpea grains increased, and at a sliding velocity of 500 mm/min it was decreased. 3) For the black steel surface, by increasing the moisture content of chickpea grains from 7.5% to 15% w.b., the value of the friction coefficient in-creased; but at a moisture content of 21% w.b., it decreased. For galvanized steel sur-faces, and sliding velocities of 5 and 20 mm/min, increasing the moisture content, the value of friction coefficient was found to decreased, but for sliding velocities of 100 and 500 mm/min it’s behaviour was similar to the black steel surface. 4) Normal pressure has no significant effect on the friction coefficient (at 0.01 level) and the difference between the mean values of the coefficient of friction associated with the normal pressure of 14.28 kPa and 100 kPa, as well as 100 kPa and 150 kPa was not significant at the 0.05 signifi-cance level.

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Leguminous crops, chickpea specifically, are usually hand-harvested for several reasons: lack of dedicated combines, small field sizes and short plant canopies. Chickpea losses and kernel damages are in the form of emberyo damage, kernel breakage or scratching and splitting.  In this research, three varieties of chick pea (Bivanij, ILC482 and Philip 93-93) at three level of moisture content (15-16, 20-21 and 25-26 percent on wet bases) and two loading directions were tested under compression loading. Independent variables were force and energy of rupture, stiffness, and deformation at the rupture point as well as some physical properties. Effect of moisture content on chickpea mechanical properties was found to be very significant (0.01). Increasing moisture content, results in significant decrease of rupture force, energy and stiffness on one hand and increase of deformation on the other. Minimum and maximum values of rupture energy were obtained to be 24.7 mJ at 25% mc wb, and 156.3 mJ at 15% mc wb, respectively, both in the longitudinal loading direction. Results of test indicated that splitting of peas is most probable at 25 moisture content under length compression. Among the three varieties of chickpea, ILC 482 variety was most sensitive to splitting. Logarithmic regression equations were obtained having R² values over 0.90 for estimation of chickpea mechanical properties based on moisture content and physical properties.

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The physiology of salt tolerance in chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) is low. Therefore, after screening of a large number of genotypes, two tolerant (SG-11 & DHG-84-11) and two susceptible (Pusa-256 & Phule G-5) chickpea genotypes were germinated in sterilized germination boxes under different levels of salt stress (NaCl : CaCl2 : Na2SO4) viz., 0.0 (control), 4.0 and 8.0dSm-1 in order to investigate the physiological basis of salt tolerance. The experiment was carried out in completely randomised design in three replications under simulated conditions. It was terminated after 8 days and the germinated seeds were subjected to various analyses. At maximum salinity stress, there was comparatively more accumulation of sugar, protein, proline and phenol in tolerant genotypes along with higher amylase, peroxidase, catalase and lower protease activities. All the characters were positively and significantly correlated. Some of these indices might be useful for im-proving chickpea genotypes against salinity stress.

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The legume crops such as chickpea and lentils are mainly cultivated in semi-arid tropical lands. Chickpea chlorotic dwarf virus (CpCDV) causes major losses to legumes throughout the world. Producing of specific antibody against this virus is crucial for surveys of disease in the fields and assessment of vial resistance in plant cultivars. Present article describes developing of specific antibody against the CpCDV virus by applying recombinant protein. In this study, coat protein of CpCDV was selected as a target for detection and preparation of polyclonal antibody. To achieve this aim CP gene encoding coat protein of CpCDV was initially PCR-amplified and inserted into bacterial expression vector. Expression of recombinant protein was performed in Bl21 strain of Escherichia coli. Purification was carried out under native conditions and the accuracy of recombinant protein production was confirmed by electrophoresis. The purified recombinant coat protein of CpCDV was used for immunization of rabbit. Purification of immunoglobulin molecules was performed by affinity chromatography using protein A column followed by conjugating of IgG to alkaline phosphatase enzyme. The capability of purified antibodies and conjugates for efficient detection of infected plants was assessed by double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA), western blotting and dot immunosorbent assay (DIBA). These results proved that prepared IgG and conjugate are able to distinguish with high efficiency CpCDV infected plants. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report for production of anti-CpCDV antibodies raised through recombinant protein technology.

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The present study was aimed to investigate the effects of secondary metabolites produced by five Trichoderma spp. on the control of Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris (FOC) in chickpea. In vitro biocontrol potentialities of Trichoderma spp. against FOC was tested. Trichoderma secondary metabolites were extracted by solvent extraction methods and evaluated against FOC. In vitro tests showed very good inhibitory effects by all Trichoderma spp. against FOC along with an inhibitory rate up to 73.8% and 27.8%, for direct and indirect contacts, respectively. Additionally, Trichoderma spp. caused a significant decrease in Fusarium wilt disease severity, in particular, T. polysporum showing 64.2% of disease severity reduction. The tested secondary metabolites were also effective against FOC with a significant decrease of mycelial growth from 6% to 76.9%. Similarly, in vivo tests revealed that secondary metabolites were very active in reducing disease severity. It was found that T. polysporum was the most active with 56.9% of disease severity reduction. Chickpea resistance is mostly attributed to polyphenolic compounds. The studied Trichoderma spp. and their secondary metabolites could be used as potential and promising antifungal agents in preventing the occurrence of Fusarium wilt in chickpea.
 

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   Edible coating are thin layers that are on surface of food materials and they are such as protector. Films and edible coating which are prepared from natural polymers specially protein are under consideration in recently years. Aim of this search, is possibility of production of edible film from chickpea protein isolated and determinate the effect of chickpea protein isolated concentration and plasticizer percent on some properties of edible film. So was considered with using from central composite design of chickpea protein isolated in concentrations 4 -10 g, and glycerol plasticizer in range of 40- 60% of weight of chickpea protein isolated in pH=9.5. In this study was considered physical and qualitative examination like water vapor permeability, film solubility, transparency of edible films. Results showed that percent of plasticizer in experiments had right effect on water vapor permeability; thus increasing of protein concentration was caused increasing of water vapor permeability measure at statistical surface (P<0.01). the increase of plasticizer concentration, is caused solving  of films and increase of protein isolated concentration is caused to decrease of transparency of edible films.  

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Among the best ways to control chickpea wilt disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris (Padwick) is the use of resistant genotypes. Accordingly, the resistance of forty-one different chickpea genotypes was evaluated, over two growing seasons, under natural field infection conditions. Follow-up experiments revealed that most chickpea genotypes exhibited typical yellowing and wilting symptoms associated with wilt disease. Quantifying disease incidence at different stages revealed considerable variation among chickpea genotypes ranging from 28.13% to 66.15%. Among the genotypes tested, five can be qualified as resistant and sixteen genotypes moderately resistant, while eighteen were susceptible and only two can be considered very susceptible to Fusarium wilt. The results show that disease severity increases over time, correlated with disease incidence, and vice versa. Furthermore, grain yield was negatively affected by disease incidence; however, the disease did not affect the hundred-grain weight. The genotypes characterized by resistance to wilt and combined with productive performance can be used as such or integrated into breeding programs to develop Fusarium wilt-resistant varieties.
 

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At the crop level, the drought stress accounts for most variations in yield. A controlled glasshouse investigation at day/night temperatures of 22/15°C based at Perth City, Western Australia was performed (in 2006) to assess the influence of different soil moisture contents (field capacity percentage basis) on emergence as well as early plant growth in twenty chickpea genotypes. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with soil moisture con-tent as the main treatment and genotype as sub-treatment. Significant differences (P < 0.001) as regards plant emergence and early growth were observed among different soil moisture contents (from 100 to 50, then to 25% field capacity). This brought about a quad-ratic reduction in mean emergence percentage, delayed the first day to emergence and sup-pressed the early growth in all the chickpea genotypes. Highly significant differences were also noticed among the genotypes for mean emergence percentage, first day to emergence, plant height, leaf area, total above-ground biomass (plant size) as well as specific leaf area. Significant interaction effect of soil moisture contents and genotypes were observed only for some of the characteristics. Inverse relationship between first day to emergence with plant height (r= - 0.87**) and above-ground biomass (r= -0.84**) were observed, indicating that the chickpea genotypes which emerged sooner produced greater plant size. Seed size and density were found to have no relationship with plant size. Although the Kabuli types on av-erage germinated faster and produced larger plants as opposed to the Desi types under the limited soil moisture content, but there was no consistency observed among the chickpea genotypes. Susceptibility of the genotypes to limited soil moisture condition was shown through relatively longer delays in time to emergence (lower germination rate) and reduc-tion in seedling parameters as compared to the resistant genotypes. Final average above-ground biomass (plant size) and plant height under the limited soil moisture content, as op-posed to adequate moisture level (F. C. 25% vs. 100%), were reduced 79-85% in Kabuli and 77-79% in Desi types, respectively.

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Wheat flour has many proteins in which gluten is an important protein in it and this protein has important role in dough formation and bread making.Thus, Uses of different materials must be considered to improve gluten quality as well as wheat flour enrichment. In this study the effects of adding chickpea protein isolate in range of 3 to 7 g and ascorbic acid in  ‎range of 0.05 to 0.15 % in wheat flour formulation on gluten stability and extensibility were investigated by response surface methodology. Therefore, The results showed that  increasing of chickpea protein and ascorbic acid concentration had significant effect (p<0.01) on farinograph parameters texture analyzes (dough extensibility) . The results of optimization in the case of 3 gr of chick pea protein isolate and 0.15% of ascorbic acid were as follows; water absorption 57.7%, dough development time 2.8 minute, dough stability 6 minute, mixing tolerance index 58 FU, farinograph quality number 91.3, toughness (area under curve) 3.3 N/mm, maximum resistance 0.02 N and dough extensibility 22.9 mm. Therefore, chickpea protein weakens strong flours gluten and it can be uses for making biscuit .   

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Knowledge of resistance to airflow through agricultural products is an important consideration in the design of drying, cooling, or aeration systems and proper fan selection for these systems. Resistance to airflow of bulk chickpea seeds was studied at moisture contents in the range of 9.21 to 21.36 % (wet basis) for airflow rate range from 0.02 to 0.50 m3 s-1 m-2, using an experimental test column. The effects of airflow rate, bed depth (0.25 to 1 m) fill method (loose and dense) and moisture content on airflow resistance of chickpea samples were investigated. Results indicated that the airflow resistance of chickpea seeds increased with increase in airflow rate, bed depth, and decreased moisture content. One percent increase in moisture content decreased the pressure drop about 2.94%. The dense fill method resulted in an increase in resistance to airflow by about 33.17% more than that of the loose fill. Three models (Shedd’s, Hukill and Ives’s, and Ergun’s models) were fitted to the experimental data at each moisture level and were examined with two parameters. Shedd’s model that gave a higher value for the coefficient of determination and a lower value for the mean relative percentage error of pressure drop predication was found to be the best model to describe airflow resistance of chickpea seeds.

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In this study, accumulation of H₂O₂, malondialdehyde (MDA) (as cold-induced oxidative stress indicators), the transcript levels of dehydrin and beta-glucosidase genes (involved in metabolic responses) was evaluated in chickpea cv. Jam, using qRT-PCR during control, cold acclimation (CA), cold stress (CS), recovery, and freezing phases. Results showed the existence of wide range of genetic capacity in the cultivar to increase cold tolerance when environmental conditions change. Significant increase in H₂O₂ and MDA content during CA phase indicated that seedlings perceived cold signaling that resulted in remarkable increase in the transcript levels of dehydrin and beta-glucosidase genes as part of defense responses of plants. Balancing the expression of these genes and oxidative stress indicators showed the interplay between two major defense and injury pathways. During freezing phase, the higher transcript levels of these genes in acclimated plants compared to non-acclimated plants showed a more active role for plant cells. An incapability of defense machine in non-acclimated plants was a limiting factor determining the low potential of chickpea plants to freezing phase. It was suggested that adjustment and metabolic alterations like dehydrin and beta-glucosidase genes, especially after CA phase and, thereby, decrease in oxidative stress indicators, could be a reason for relative cold tolerance in chickpea. 

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In this study the effect of chickpea flour in three ranges of (0, 1.5 & 3%) and storage time in three ranges of (1, 11 & 21 days) on survival of lactobacillus paracasei and qualitative properties of fruit yogurt containing 15% apple puree was investigated using response surface method (RSM). The statistical analysis of the results showed that with increasing of chickpea flour up to 0.5%, lactobacillus paracasei viability increased but with increasing of flour more than this amount the bacterial count decreased significantly (P<0.05). The bacterial count decreased during storage (P<0.05). The addition of chickpea flour decreased pH, moisture content, syneresis and increased acidity, ash and apparent viscosity significantly (P<0.05). During storage pH and moisture content decreased and apparent viscosity increased (P<0.05). In sensorial evaluation of samples the addition of chickpea flour decreased the flavor score and improved consistency score (P<0.05). In conclusion, using of 2.36% of chickpea flour and with storage period of 9 days was determined as optimum conditions.

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The impact of three different fabaceous host plants including cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), and mung bean (Vigna radiata) seeds was investigated using biochemical approaches on possible changes of gut proteolytic activity of the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus at 30±1˚C and 70±5% RH and a photoperiod of 8:16 (L:D). Results revealed that pH of 4-5 and 9 was optimal for the activity of larval gut proteases using azocasein and hemoglobin as general substrates. Different serine (BApNA, SAAPFpNA, PMSF, TLCK, and TPCK) and cysteine (Z-Arg-Arg- pNA, Z-Phe-Arg-pNA and DTT) specific substrates inhibitors and activator were used as a further proof of the proteolytic profile in the gut of C. maculates. Although combinations of serine and cysteine proteases were observed, the cysteine proteases had the highest rate on the studied hosts. The protease activity, especially cystein protease, was the highest on cowpea, which was supported by hemoglobin (0.156±0.045 U mg^-1), Z-Phe-Arg-pNA (2.85 U mg^-1) substrates and DTT (90.00±0.10%) as an activator. Due to the importance and frequency of cysteine proteinases and their effects on biological and physiological process, it would be better to design pest management programs based on cysteine plant proteinase inhibitors as transgenic plants.

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The purpose of this research is to investigate the replacement of different levels of chickpea flour (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) with quinoa flour and the addition of monoglyceride emulsifier at levels of 0, 0.5 and 1% to the formulation of gluten-free cookies. In this research, the amount of ash, protein, moisture, specific volume, firmness and sensory properties (form and shape, surface, texture, cheweness, odor and taste, and overall acceptance) of the samples were evaluated. The results showed that the moisture, ash and fat content of quinoa flour was higher and its protein content was lower than chickpea flour. By increasing the level of replacing chickpea with quinoa flour in the formulation of gluten-free cookies, the amount of moisture and ash was increased and the amount of protein was decreased. The sample containing 25% quinoa flour and 0.5% monoglyceride emulsifier had the highest specific volume (0.98 ml/g) and the lowest firmness (31.37 N). The presence of quinoa flour and the increase of its level in the formulation showed L* value decreased and a* value increased. The sensory evaluation showed the sample containing 25% quinoa flour (without emulsifier) and the sample containing 25% quinoa flour and 0.5% monoglyceride emulsifier had better than other samples. It should be noted that the samples containing 50% quinoa flour in the presence of 0.5% monoglyceride emulsifier were of high quality and quantity, and the overall acceptance score and physicochemical characteristics of these samples were favorable. Therefore, samples containing 25  quinoa flour and 0.5% monoglyceride emulsifier are introduced as the best samples of gluten-free cookies in this research.
 

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The sprouting process includes changes in nutritional, biochemical, and sensory characteristics that improve chickpea quality and increase its digestibility. Various products such as Falafel are made from ground and dried chickpea sprouts. Therefore, in this research, the use of hot air (70°C), infrared (250 W), and microwave (220 W) methods for drying ground chickpea sprouts was investigated and modeled. The drying time of the samples in the infrared dryer was shorter than the other two dryers. The average drying time of the samples in the hot air, infrared and microwave dryers was 63.3, 26.7, and 156.7 min, respectively. In this research, the effective moisture diffusivity coefficient of ground chickpea sprouts in hot air, infrared and microwave dryers was determined to be 4.99×10^-9 m²s^-1, 17.95×10^-9 m²s^-1, and 1.59×10^-9 m²s^-1, respectively. To study the drying kinetics of ground chickpea sprouts, Wang and Singh, Henderson and Pabis, Approximation of diffusion, Page, Newton, Midilli, and Logarithmic mathematical models were fitted to the experimental data. Finally, when modeling the drying process of this product, Midilli's mathematical model with four parameters was chosen as the best model due to its minimal error.

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Investigation for developing natural plant protection products as an alternative to synthetic fungicides has become important regarding the environmental impact. In this study, the chemical composition and the antifungal activity of five Moroccan aromatic plants, namely, oregano (Origanum compactum), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), mint (Mentha pulegium L) and myrtle (Myrtus communis) was explored for controlling Ascochyta rabiei, in vitro. The pathogen is a seed-borne causal agent of Ascochyta blight and it is considered the most economically damaging disease of chickpea. The radial growth of A. rabiei was completely inhibited by oregano, mint, thyme and myrtle at low concentrations (0.15-5 µL mL^-1). The most important effect was obtained with oregano (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration, MIC- 0.15 µL mL^-1), followed by Thyme (MIC- 0.5 µL mL^-1). The phytotoxicity test of these essential oils on chickpea germination showed that oregano and Thyme oils do not have phytotoxic effects at MIC concentrations, whereas mint and myrtle oils can have an effect on reducing germination percentage of chickpea seeds. The chemical composition of tested essential oils was analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS analysis). The analysis revealed the dominance of two compounds (Thymol and Carvacrol) in the most effective oils and can represent the principal active ingredient in the pathogen control. Therefore, the essential oils of oregano and Thyme or their major compounds could be investigated for seed or foliar treatment of chickpea against Ascochyta blight infection.

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Chickpea protein is considered a high-quality natural protein and can be used as a nutrient or the main ingredient of foods, useful for human health.  In this study, the effect of four independent variables including time (20-60) minutes , temperature (4-35) degrees of Celsius, pH (8.50-10) and solid to solvent ratio of (1:10 – 1:15) was investigated on the optimization of the physicochemical properties of Anna variety chickpea protein, and its functional properties, including foam formation capacity and stability (in 30 and 180 minutes). For this purpose, 30 standard runs were performed using the response surface method, central composite design including 6 repetitions at the central points. The maximum foam formation capacity and stability was obtained with optimal conditions of temperature of 4.055 °C, time of 54.27 min, pH value of 8.517 and solvent to solid ratio of 1:10.220. The highest foam stability was observed after 40 minutes, at pH equal to 8.5. The results of this research showed that the chickpea protein of Ana variety could be used as part of food formulation, which increases the nutritional value and functional characteristics of the product.

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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a traditional crop species in Turkey that is cultivated in almost every province providing prominent economic income. Turkey has an important resource for both Cicer spp diversity and their phytopathogens like ascohyta blight caused by Didymella rabiei (Kovachevski) von Arx wherein resistance/tolerance is broken every 4-5 years in cultivated chickpea cultivars. In order to breed resistant/tolerant varieties in chickpea against D. rabiei, detailed and up to date analyses on population characterization is needed. This study was undertaken to define current aggressiveness patterns, pathotype and mating type distribution of D. rabiei population in chickpea growing areas of Turkey. The D. rabiei isolates were assigned to 5 virulence groups in which existence of pathotype IV, a new and aggressive group, was defined for the first time from farmers’ fields and research institutes exhibiting continuous arm race between plant and pathogen. The isolates in each pathotype group depicted statistically important difference (P≤ 0.05) in virulence levels on chickpea genotypes. The mating type distribution of 971 D. rabiei isolates was 1:1 for Mat 1.1 and Mat 1.2 isolates (X²= 0.87, P= 0.35) exhibiting random sexual reproduction. Overall, the data obtained revealed the unstable aggressiveness nature of D. rabiei population in Turkey, which, in turn, explains frequent resistance overcome in registered chickpea genotypes leading to epidemics.