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Powdery mildew (PM) of chilli is one of the major diseases affecting the yield and quality of chilli. Pathogen perpetuates in the infected crop debris and produce airborne conidia for rapid secondary spread. Prophylactic application of fungicides is admissible to keep the disease under threshold. Therefore, an experiment was designed to determine bio-efficacy and phytotoxicity of different doses of a new molecule combination (i.e KK-21: Sulphur 84% + Azoxystrobin 6% SC) along with optimization of its number of sprayings. This molecule was also compared with the most popularly used fungicides against PM of chilli. Additionally, influence of weather variables on the initiation and progression of the disease were also studied and prediction model developed by stepwise regression equation for timely forecasting and managing the disease. Study revealed, depending upon the prevailing weather the disease first appears between 44 to 64 days after transplanting then progress gradually at a rate varied from 0.0012 to 0.0139. Among the fungicides applied, three spraying of KK-21 @ 2500 ml/ha at 15 DI just after initiation of the disease was most effective with lowest disease severity index (5.00) and highest yield 150.24 q ha^-1 and no phytotoxic effect was recorded even at higher dose. Result also showed, maximum temperature and relative humidity had significantly positive and negative correlation with the disease severity and the prediction equation demonstrated that these two factors could explain 78.2 - 87.6% of the variation in disease severity.

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The dry bubble disease, caused by Lecanicillium fungicola, is an important fungal disease of white button mushroom in Iranian mushroom production farms. Twenty-three isolates of the pathogen collected in Iran and identified as L. fungicola var. fungicola, were compared for genetic polymorphism, diversity in growth rate and virulence. Ten Universal Rice Primers (URP) were used to evaluate the genetic diversity of L. fungicola var. fungicola. URP analysis showed that the genetic diversity of Iranian isolates was low (average 10 % over the 10 primers used) and that they were almost clonal. Relative correlations between geographical origins of isolates and molecular grouping were observed but there was no correlation between mycelial growth rate, virulence assays and URP patterns. Significant differences were observed between isolates based on mycelial growth rate and virulence assays. The high level of genetic homogeneity is attributed to the effect of fungicides used for control of the mushroom diseases which might have imposed a significant selection pressure on the fungal populations.  

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Fungi belonging to the Mycosphaerella s. l. are widely distributed all over the world. Most taxa cause leaf spot diseases, and have considerable impact on cultivation of many economically important crops. On Eucalyptus species, for example, Mycosphaerella leaf spots are one of the major diseases responsible for severe damage in most parts of the word especially outside of their native cultivation range. Mycosphaerella leaf blotches on Eucalyptus have little been studied in Iran. During a study on fungi associated with leaf spots on Eucalyptus spp. several specimens of mitosporic fungi which have been collected from Guilan province were examined and two species viz. Kirramyces epicoccoides and Pseudocercospora eucalyptorum were found to be new records for Iran mycobiota. Moreover, another species of Pseudocercospora is described on Eucalyptus. This species is clearly distinguished from related taxa by its conidium morphology, and appears to represent a new species; however, due to complicated taxonomy of the genus Pseudocercospora (especially on Eucalyptus spp.) further information is required to confirm its taxonomical position.  

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A survey was conducted to identify the fungus gnats (Diptera: Mycetophilidae) in Kermanshah province (west of Iran) during 2010-2011. The specimens were collected from nine different localities. Adults were reared from the fruiting bodies of Agaric fungi. Five species are recorded for the first time from Iran: Mycetophila strigatoides (Lundrock), Allodia ornaticollis (Meigen), Rymosia pseudocretensis Burghele-Balacesco, Synplasta gracilis (Winnertz) and Sciophila eryngii Chandler. Eight host associations (gnats-fungi) are also reported for the first time. The diagnostic characters, host range and geographical distribution of each species are given.  

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Soybean, Glycine max, is susceptible to a large number of disease agents such as seedling and root pathogens that cause serious damages to this crop plant. One of these soil-borne pathogens is Macrophomina phaseolina, the causal agent of charcoal root rot. In this study, two bacteria, Pantoea agglomerans and Bacillus sp. BIN, and a fungus, Trichoderma harzianum T100, as potential biocontrol agents, and maneb fungicide, were evaluated against soybean charcoal rot disease in In Vitro and greenhouse conditions. All antagonists inhibited growth of the pathogen in dual culture test by 73.8, 63.3 and 55.3 %, respectively. Data from greenhouse experiments showed that in the presence of pathogen all antagonists increased the growth indices of soybean in both pasteurized and non-pasteurized soil. Reductions of microsclerotia coverage on soybean root and stem by P. agglomerans, Bacillus sp. and T. harzianum were up to 62.5, 87.6 and 62.5 %, respectively and for maneb fungicide was 87.6 % in pasteurized soil. The overall results of this study show high capability of used antagonists in reduction of initial inoculums for next season of this monocyclic disease.

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One of the important technical obstacles in the study of many filamentous fungi is the development of efficient transformation system. Transformation of filamentous fungi is difficult because they have a cell wall and for most frequently used approaches preparing of protoplast is necessary. Protoplast preparation is batch-dependent and often frustrating work. In this study, a modified method was introduced for gene transfer to the plant pathogenic fungus, Fusarium graminearum, the major causal agent of Fusarium Head Blight disease in small grains. This protocol was based on protoplast-PEG method. Age of mycelia, enzymes exposure time and mycelium/enzyme ratio were optimized for the purpose of protoplast preparation. The outcome showed that the best result for protoplast preparation was obtained when 1.5 × 10⁵ spores were let germinate for 6 h then exposed to 10 ml of enzyme solution for 3 h. The effect of other parameters that might enhance transformation yields including PEG concentration, DNA quantity and number of protoplasts was also examined. The most efficient condition for transformation involved the use of 10⁶ protoplasts, 20 µg DNA and 30% PEG (w/v). In the course of this study, a simple and appropriate modified protocol for transformation of F. graminearum was established. The method introduced is also more economical and faster than other current methods.

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Plants infected by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can tolerate and recover more rapidly from different biotic and abiotic stresses such as soil water deficits than uninfected plants. Thereby study of the dominant mycorrhiza species in the fields under drought stresses is very useful for increasing crop productivity in these conditions and promising for biological fertilizer production in the future. The objective of this research was to study the variations in morphological and molecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and identification of dominant AMF in wheat and barley fields of some arid and semi arid regions of Iran. For this purpose, about 66 samples containing root and rhizospher soils of wheat and barley plants were collected from some arid and semi arid regions of Iran (Isfahan, Tehran, Ghazvin, Arak, Tabriz). After trap culture of observed mycorrhiza in the samples, they were identified using morphological and molecular techniques. The ITS-rDNA of AMF in root DNA extracts of wheat and barley amplified with the primer pair LSU-Glom1/SSU-Glom1 as specific primer for AMF and ITS4/ITS5 as general primers in the first and second reactions of PCR (nested PCR), respectively. Aliquots of the positive second PCR products were cloned. Positive colonies were digested with Taq1. The restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns of digested samples were compared and 1-3 representatives of each pattern at each cloning reaction were sequenced. Morphological and molecular diversity of AMF showed that more than 90% AMF observed in the regions belong to genus Glomus which coordinates with morphological studies and followed by G. intraradices. Also these studies confirmed presence of following species in some regions: G. fasciculatum, G. geosporum, G. sinosum, G. constrictum, G. macrocarpum and Glomus sp. and Acaulospora (Acaulospora sp.). It is important to note that the species G. etunicatu and G. dimorphicum were not detected in the morphological studies and Glomus mosseae was the most dominant AMF species in the all studied regions.

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Potential of three physically different formulations of biocontrol agent Thrichoderma harzianum199 was investigated in a field trial against wheat common bunt caused by Tilletia laevis Kühn. Wheat seeds of cv. Chamran were treated with liquid, semi-solid (gel mixed suspension) and solid (talc powder) formulations prior to planting. Field practices were performed based on Khuzestan wheat planting schedule and no chemical was used until harvesting. The results of analyzed data showed significant effect of formulation type on common bunt incidence. Tetraconazole (chemical check) showed common bunt reduction (97.7%) and among bio-formulations, gel-mixed suspension was significant in disease reduction (43.41%), but it was next to talc and liquid formulation in yield, harvested weight, healthy spikes and stem height. Talc formulation reduced bunt infection (39.07%) and showed better than gel mixed suspension in yield and some yield components. Conversely, liquid formulation enhanced bunt incidence (25.31%) but was almost same as the talc and better than gel formulation in yield and yield components. General findings of this experiment indicate that physical form of T. harzianum 199 formulation can effectively influence both common bunt prevention and agronomic potential of Chamran wheat cultivar.

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Asparaginase and amylase are widely used enzymes in various industries, which can be produced by endophytic fungi. In this study, the ability of producing these two enzymes in endophytic fungi isolated from six species of Thymus has been reported for the first time in the world. Among 89 isolates of the test, 34 isolates produced asparaginase among which M24 (Fusarium subglutinans) displayed the greatest enzyme activity. Thirty three isolates showed the ability to produce amylase while the greatest enzyme activity belonged to M53 (Curvularia akaii). This study can be regarded as a preliminary work and endophytic fungi of high activity are proposed as possible resources for control of cancer in humans and for industrial applications.

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Cercosporoid fungi including the genus Cercospora and other morphologically similar genera are associated with leaf spot symptoms on various host plants. In this research three taxa including Passalora cucurbiticola (on Cucurbita sp.), P. bolleana (on Ficus carica), and Pseudocercosporella capsellae (on Capsella bursa-pastoris, Sinapis arvensis) were identified. Among these, P. cucurbiticola and P. capsellae are new records for mycobiota of Iran.  

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The production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic biomass could be considered as an appropriate and economic option to remove environmental disasters and improve energy security. In fact, lignocellulosic material is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Lignin works as the adhering prevents the bioconversion of cellulose into sugars and ultimately to ethanol. To address the problem, various chemical, physical, physicochemical and biological methods have been suggested. Enjoying convenient operating conditions, production of non-hazardous wastes, and having no harmful side effects, make the biological methods a potentially proper option. Unfortunately, the biological methods are slower and less efficient in comparison with the other processes. In the present study, an attempt is made to resolve this problem in an enzymatic degradation of lignin of a rice straw sample. Several peroxidase enzymes were produced by a white rot fungus, and their effects on lignin removal from the biomass samples were investigated in shaking flasks. Lignin concentration and enzymes' activity were measured by the acetyl bromide-soluble lignin spectrophotometric method and optical density method using special reagents, respectively. The results revealed that the enzymatic treatment could remove at least 30% of the lignin content of the lignocellulosic biomass. To achieve the maximum activity of the enzymes, The chemical composition of the culturing medium was optimized for the concentration of important metal ions including Cu2+, Mn2+ and Zn2+ through Box Behnken response surface methodology. The enzymes' activity at the obtained optimal conditions increased four times for Manganese peroxidase, and lignin peroxidase.

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Some plant extracts have been reported to exhibit antimicrobial properties. Plant based pesticides appear to be an alternative for the synthetic pesticides because of their less dangerous impacts. The objective of this study was to assess the inhibitory activity of Brassica napus water extract on mycelial growth of six phytopathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani, Phythophtora drechseleri, Pythium aphanidermatum, Verticellium dahliae, Fusarium oxysporum, and Gaeumannomyces graminis. Antifungal activity test was performed by disc diffusion method. Concentrations of 100 and 50 ppm had the highest and the lowest inhibitory effects on all studied species respectively. The shoot extract (SE) was significantly exerted higher antifungal activity than root extract (RE). At 100 ppm, V. dahliae (17.02% inhibition by RE) and F. oxysporum (50% inhibition by SE) were the most sensitive species however, R. solani (1.8 and 15%) was the most resistant fungus to both extracts. Active compounds of B. napus extract were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Phenolic compounds had the highest concentrations in extracts and are probably the main cause of the mycelial growth inhibition. Application of canola aqueous extract or incorporation of canola in crop rotation program can be considered as a method for management of some soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi.

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Application of antagonistic agents in the rhizosphere of plants is an important approach in control of soil-borne pathogens. Establishment and persistence of biocontrol agents in the soil is a major concern in biological control. This study aimed to determine the effect of plant debris of oak forests on activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Trichoderma vierns against Meloidogyne javanica in tomato in green house conditions. In different treatments, both or one of the bioagents were applied to the soil inoculated with M. javanica and amended or unamended with oak plant debris. Based on the results, the growth–related factors of tomato improved in those treatments, in which plant debris were mixed with the soil. In case of nematode-related factors, the number of galls on roots decreased significantly in pots amended with plant debris. Maximum reduction in reproduction factor was observed in treatments with one or both of the biocontrol agents. In comparison to unamended treatments, the rate of reduction in root gall was 56.3% for treatments receiving T. virens and maximum increase in dry weight of root was observed in soils treated with P. fluorescens or T. virens, 68.2% and 56.1%, respectively.

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Among fungi, species of the genus Paecilomyces are considered as promising biological control agents with high potential to reduce root-knot nematode (RKN) and other nematode populations. In this research we investigated a soil hyphomycetes, Paecilomyces marquandii and its pathogenicity on eggs of RKN in vitro. In greenhouse test, root weight, plant length, fresh weight and dry weight of plants, gall index and proportion of infected eggs were determined. P. marquandii, effectively promoted growth of plants inoculated with M. incognita by suppressing its pathogenesis as root galling and reducing egg mass production. At 25 °C, a great number of nematode eggs were parasitized by P. marquandii, inhibiting juvenile development.

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In this research, the curative action of Fenton reagent (H₂O₂)/Fe⁽²⁺⁾), Fenton like reagent (H₂O₂)/Fe⁽³⁺⁾), Fenton complex (H₂O₂)/Fe⁽³⁺⁾/oxalic acid) and famoxadone + cymoxanil as foliar applications were examined against downy mildew of cucumber caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. and Curtis) under greenhouse conditions during two successive growing seasons. Likewise, the impact of these treatments was also investigated on some biochemical and growth characters of cucumber plants. In addition the toxicity of Fenton solutions were assessed on rats as for biochemical and histological changes in liver and kidney of treated rats with respect to control. Results demonstrated that famoxadone + cymoxanil was the best treatment against downy mildew followed by Fenton like reagent, Fenton reagent and Fenton complex, in both growing seasons. There was marked increase in each biochemical parameter of cucumber plants (chlorophyll, peroxidase and polyphenoloxidase) and also in cucumber yield under all treatments compared to untreated control. No noticeable alterations were observed in liver and kidney of rats treated with the tested Fenton solutions compared to control. Fenton solutions could be utilized as efficient and safe means to control downy mildew of cucumber in greenhouse conditions.

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In this study, anti Alternaria solani effects of essential oils of 11 medicinal and aromatic plant species belonging to four families collected from the west of Iran were investigated based on agar dilution method with five replications at concentration of 1.0 µl/ml. The results showed that the highest inhibitory effect belonged to Oliveria decumbens, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Carum copticum and Thymus kotschyanus which completely inhibited the mycelial growth of the fungus. Therefore, their activity was examined in lower concentrations, too. The essential oil of O. decumbens at concentration of 0.50 and 0.25 µl/ml completely suppressed the mycelial growth of the fungus. The major constituents of its essential oil were carvacrol (46.53%), thymol (23.75%), p-Cymene (13.70%), γ-terpinene (7.66%) and myristicin (3.65%), respectively. Thus, the essential oil of this species with the highest anti-Alternaria activity could be selected for further studies on in vivo application as natural fungicide.

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The thermophilic fungus Mycothermus thermophilus is one of the most important thermophilic fungi in mushroom composting process. Thirty nine isolates of M. thermophilus were collected from nine provinces of Iran and were identified as M. thermophilus based on morphological features and ITS regions. The studied isolates significantly increased the growth of Agaricus bisporus hyphae compared to control when used in vitro situation. Also the colony morphology of the mushroom changed when it grew on the colony of M. thermophilus. While the studied thermophilic isolates were morphologically different, no diversity was observed in terms of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) finger-printing. The genetically clonal population of M. thermophilus collected from Iranian mushroom composting farms was attributed to lack of sexual reproduction, similar raw materials used in compost formulations, compost temperature, and concentration of ammonia during pasteurization as selection pressures.

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Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) is one of the promising microbial control agents for the management of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) Death rate, lethal time and survival expectancy were calculated for an infected population of O. surinamensis at 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 °C. Results showed that the mean death rate under above mentioned temperatures was 0.89, 1.15, 1.40, 1.21, and 1.11 larvae/day, respectively. The values were 0.99, 1.38, 1.47, 1.18 and 1.16 insects/day for adults respectively. LT₅₀s, at the same temperatures, were 7.11, 7.04, 4.82, 6.07 and 6.89 days for larvae and 7.03, 6.31, 4.83, 5.58, and 6.55 for adults, respectively. Survival curves for both larval and adult populations were more similar at 25, 30 and 35 °C compared to 15 and 20 °C. The survival rates in infected populations were low during 3^rd and 4^th days post inoculation and decreased with a sharp slope toward the end of the experiments under different temperatures. In every case, survival curves were of the 2^nd type in which the mortality decreases in a steady linear form.

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Biodiesel as a clean fuel is renewable, biocompatible and free of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that could be deriving from animals, plants, fungal, algae and bacteria resources. Among these resources, oleaginous fungi due to the high capability to synthesize and accumulation of triacylglycerol are the best source for biodiesel producer. So, in order to providing approaches for increase biodiesel production based on biotechnology, molecular investigation in these organisms could be promising approach, which have been attentioned in this study. In this regard, a precise survey on the related molecular mechanisms led to reveal Malic enzymes as the effective and critical proteins in lipids production and accumulation in oleaginous fungi. Structural characterization of the genes, led to reveal that they are different in the length and GC content as well as they are continuous in the sequence context. Moreover, structural characterization of the enzymes led to determine their localization in the cells, present the functional domains with capability of post-translational modifications in all of them, which are including MAO1_MF, Malic_M and malic. Homologous sequences survey of the enzymes led to introducing fungal species with possible capability for lipid production.structural modeling of the selective malic and malic like enzymes led to provided suitable models in structure and quality in function with binding affinity to malate. In general, the results of this study, while introducing suitable fungal species for securance of biomass, led to reveal effective enzymes with special features that could be useful in tracing the capable strains or transgenesis modification.